Issue 2023 No. 2 (75)
Тема номера: «Трансформация кочевых обществ Юга России в контексте природно-климатических факторов (XIX – середина XX в.)»

FROM THE EDITORS

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In memory of Vadim Vintserovich Trepavlov (1960–2023)

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“To look forward to settlement”: imperial policy in foreign territories

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The relevance of the research conducted is determined by the prolonged influence of climate factors on the development of modern households in several areas of modern Russia that relied heavily on cattle breeding. The subject of this study is the imperial political tactic which includes the transfer... of Southern Russian nomadic foreign communities into a sedentary lifestyle (19–20 centuries) using Kalmyk, Nogai, Turkmen people as an example. With the help of multiple documents such as: acts, clerical papers as well as statistics and after using the problem-chronological & historical-comparison methods of research three steps of nomadic settling become visible. The study showed that these nomadic peoples occupied territories clearly not conducive to the development of agricultural labor, which predetermined the conservation of an extensive method of cattle breeding for many decades. In conclusion the author devices that the traditional, multi-generational survival strategy and experience of nomads which is pre-determined by geographical location and climate became obsolete when it came to sedentary living. The contradictory behaviours of Imperial politicians of different of state power importance in the nomadic communities of Astrahan and Stavropol provinces demonstrates the lack of governmental understanding of foreign areas of Southern Russia.
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City in the system of economic interests of nomadic communities of the Eurasian steppe zone in the 16th–19th centuries

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The relevance of the proposed topic is determined by the fact that the influence of geographical location and natural and climatic conditions on the economic activity of people remains one of the most important factors in the development of the economy and the territorial division of labor. This was... especially significant for pre-industrial traditional communities, in whose economic life cattle breeding played the main role. An equally important role in the civilizational development of society is played by the city as an artificial phenomenon in the formation of the living space of a certain part of the population. In this article, the author aims to consider the role of the city in the economic life of the nomads of the Eurasian steppe zone in the 16th–19th centuries. On the example of Bashkirs, Nogais, Kazakhs and Kalmyks. Proceeding from the law of unity and struggle of opposites as a dialectical method of cognition, an attempt was made, on the basis of a number of documentary sources and literature, to show the contradiction and relationship between sedentary (city) and nomadism (nomadic community) of pre-industrial society. As a result of the study of the problem, it was revealed that the connection of nomads with the city was a necessary condition for the preservation of their community. It is shown that the routes of seasonal movements of the steppes passed near the cities. The city was a place of barter, mutually beneficial for both city dwellers and nomads. In the XVI–XIX centuries. the city became one of the instruments of sedentarization and integration of nomadic peoples into the Russian state
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Establishment of nomadic lands of Stavropol Turkmens at the beginning of the XIX century

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The article is devoted to the issue of establishing the boundaries of the nomadic territories of the Stavropol Turkmens after 1771, who found themselves without their own pasture territories. In the XVIII century, the Turkmens were included in the system of nomadic places of the Kalmyk uluses, but a...fter its liquidation of the Kalmyk Khanate, they were displaced to the Stavropol highlands, which was an unfavorable area for the functioning of traditional nomadic pastoral cattle breeding. For the effective use of natural resources in the conditions of nomadic economy, the established territories of summer and winter nomads were required. Since the beginning of the XIX century the Turkmen population is making attempts to return to the past traditional system of joint nomads with the Kalmyk population, when the Turkmens roamed «in the wake of the Kalmyks». It should be noted that the attempts of the Russian administration to separate the Kalmyks and Turkmens were unsuccessful, which led to the fact that in 1809 the authorities granted the petition for the accession of the Stavropol Turkmens to the Kalmyks. Immediately after the unification of the Kalmyks with the Turkmens, the question arose about the allocation of lands belonging to the “Trukhmen people”. The Russian administration noted that although the Kuma River is considered the border between the Kalmyks and other nomadic peoples of the "Mohammedan faith", an exception was made for the Turkmen population and it was allowed to roam in the Kalmyks' footsteps along the Kalaus River basin and the Ergeninsky Upland. The establishment of nomadic territories of Stavropol Turkmens in the early XIX century led to the emergence of the conditional term “Trukhmen steppe”. In the future, this led to a period of long-term territorial and property disputes between the Kalmyks and the inhabitants of the Caucasus Region, which were resolved by themselves as peasant colonization in the Stavropol province grew.
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The crisis of the seasonal migration system in the XIX century, as the main factor of transition to semi-settled and settled economy.

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The article is devoted to the study of the crisis of the system of seasonal migrations in the XIX century, when the developed system of seasonal migrations under the influence of the policy of the Russian administration was under attack. The consequences of the destruction of the old system of nomad...ism in the late XVIII – early XIX centuries immediately caused such negative phenomena as an increase in the number of "cattle-free" poor Kalmyk families. In the future, the policy of the Russian administration on the resettlement of peasants from the central provinces on the territory of Kalmyk nomads led to a reduction in pasture territories and made it physically impossible for the traditional pasture system to function, which became one of the main factors in the transition to semi-settled and settled farming. It should be noted that since the middle of the XIX century, Kalmyk society has been actively adapting to natural and climatic conditions with the help of new methods of cattle breeding. It has found a new strategy for survival and adaptation of cattle breeding to more severe and unfavorable conditions — the transition to semi-nomadic cattle breeding. In this situation, the nomadic society took such unprecedented measures as the fragmentation of large ethnic groups into smaller ones that roamed the Khotons within their ulus. Also, Kalmyk cattle breeders began to apply measures to intensify cattle breeding by creating artificial reservoirs on the routes of nomads and harvesting hay on the territory of winter places. All these measures entailed profound structural changes in the traditional culture of the Kalmyk people.
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Adaptation of the traditional economic activity of Astrakhan Nogais to the natural conditions of the Lower Volga region

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The article is devoted to the description of the economic activity of the Astrakhan Nogais in the context of its changes in the natural conditions of the Lower Volga region, after its entry into the Moscow state. It should be noted that in the population of the Astrakhan Region, Nogais are represent...ed by several groups that have their own established economic and cultural specifics. Among the controversial issues that are reflected in the literature of local lore, the question of the correlation of the Nogai population of the region with the previous period associated with the existence of the post-Horde formation of the Astrakhan Khanate and, accordingly, continuity in their economic complex is polemically considered. In regional conditions, the Nogais have a gradual reduction in the number of livestock and, accordingly, the areas of nomadism. The equipment of settled settlements, which have been used as temporary wintering grounds for quite a long time, is gradually increasing. Among the groups of Astrakhan Nogais, the process of sendentarization took place in different ways, respectively, the transition from mainly cattle farming to various types of agricultural activities in the form of vegetable growing, melon growing and gardening had its own characteristics. In the Lower Volga region, the importance of fishing in the organization of economic activity is increasing It should be noted that in the conditions of the development of the capitalist economy in the XIX century, industrial capital was also formed among the Astrakhan Nogais. Regional natural conditions and socio-economic processes influenced the peculiarities of economic activity of Astrakhan Nogais. With the advent of Soviet power, all groups of Astrakhan Nogais who have preserved a seasonal nomadic lifestyle settle to the ground administratively, the organization of their economic activities is subordinated to the tasks of collective farm construction
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Administrative and veterinary supervision of cattle transport and fight against locust and ground squirts in the Kalmyk Steppe at the end of the 19th century as a factor of natural and economic well-being of the region

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The interaction of nature and man in the modern world is a very important component of the well-being of man as a biological species. In our opinion, referring to the historical experience of the actions of state authorities in relation to various types of management and their connection with natura...l factors is a very relevant topic. The purpose of this article is to study the activities of UKN represented by the chief trustee and trustees of uluses, who head certain parts of uluses for supervision of cattle movement across the Kalmyk steppe as transit, control over the number of natural pests of agriculture, namely locusts and ground squirrels in the context of the transition of nomadic Kalmyks to settlement. The sources were a few works of researchers, as well as archival sources from the National Archive of the Republic of Kalmykia. Among the methods used in the work we note content analysis and problem-chronological analysis. The analysis of the literature, clerical archival documentation allowed us to draw a number of conclusions. Firstly, the state authorities took a number of measures to control the movement of livestock in the region as a transit between the provinces of the empire. For this purpose the rules of cattle driving were introduced in the region, which included the mandatory availability of a document for cattle runners and cattle manufacturers. The control over the transportation of livestock made it possible not only to monitor the replenishment of the budget with taxes, but also to keep a record of animals, their condition (health). Secondly, officials tried to take care of the destruction of locust seed deposits in advance and the period of combating them was lengthened in time. Thirdly, the Kalmyk authorities did not have a clear plan to combat ground squirrels. The fight against it was just emerging in the systemic plan. One of the first measures of the Kalmyk officials was to study ground squirrels and conduct experiments on the extermination of rodents, unfortunately, without taking into account the consequences of the complete destruction of rodents, which could negatively affect the natural balance in the Kalmyk steppe.
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Transition of Nomads of Altai Mountains to Sedentarization: Social Technologies and the Transformation of Traditional Economy (ХIХ – first third of the ХХ)

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The problem of transferring nomads living and leading their economy in the conditions of mountainous ecological systems (Gorny Altai) to a settled way of life urgency is determined both by fundamental changes in their socio-economic life, and by the ideology formation on this basis. The study purpos...e owas to reflect the process of transition to settled life of the autochthonous peoples of the Altai Mountains, its consequences, and to outline social technologies as a component of the national policy of the state. The principles of system and process approaches were used as a methodological basis. The used sampling method and comparative analysis made it possible to identify common features of the transition to settled life of the autochthonous peoples of Gorny Altai in the 19th — the first third of the 20th centuries. The archival documents deposited in the state archives funds were involved for the analysis. The author came to the following results and conclusions: the stages in the process of transferring the nomads of the Altai Mountains to a settled way of life (missionary or state-clerical during the 19th century and state in the 1920–1930s), orientation towards a qualitative change in the way and way of life of the autochthonous. The social technologies of transferring the nomads of the Altai Mountains to a settled way of life are revealed as a conscious activity of social institutions — the Altai Spiritual Mission and the governing bodies of the Oirot Autonomous Region. They acted in different historical conditions, pursuing a common goal. Ecological factors of transfer of nomads to settled way of life were not taken into account. The author came to the following results and conclusions: the stages in the process of transferring the nomads of the Altai Mountains to a settled way of life are distinguished: state-clerical (missionary), covering the 19th century, and state in the 1920-1930s. The orientation of the authorities towards a qualitative change in the way of life of the autochthonous population was characteristic of both stages. The social technologies of transferring the nomads of the Altai Mountains to a settled way of life are revealed as manifestations of the conscious activity of political subjects (social institutions) - the Altai Spiritual Mission and the Oirot Autonomous Region executive authorities. It is the subject of politics acted in different historical conditions, pursuing a common goal. The environmental factors of the transition of nomads to settled life were not taken into account either at the first or at the second stages.
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Transformation of the Nomadic lifestyle of the Stavropol Turkmens in the XIX–XX centuries

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The purpose of this work is to determine the type of cattle breeding economy and society of the Stavropol Turkmens, as well as to identify the main factors influenced the transformation of the nomadic society, to assess the stability of the nomad tradition after the cardinal change of the type of ec...onomic. The research is based on the author's field materials, archival sources and literature data. It is concluded that the lifestyle of the Stavropol Turkmens in the XIX – early XX century corresponded to the characteristics of a nomadic society, which prof. A. M. Khazanov described in relation to the nomads of Eurasia. When the Turkmens moved from the Transcaspian lands to the Stavropol steppes, there was a reverse transition from a semi-nomadic to a nomadic type of economy among the Turkmens. At that the Turkmen society has returned from a proto-state social structure to a tribal patriarchal one. The events connected with the Sedentarization Campaign in the South of Russia (the second half of the XIX century) showed that the traditions and the "free spirit" of the nomads were very strong and significant for the Turkmens. They did not want to engage in farming and could not do it because of the lack of appropriate skills. After the revolution of 1917, the traditional mode of life of the Turkmens was destroyed, under the Soviet rule they were reoriented to farming as the participants of collective farms. However, some features of their nomadic culture are preserved among the Stavropol Turkmens in contemporary life.
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"Rich before the first storm": government measures to overcome the effects of severe winters in nomadic societies

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The importance of the study is conditioned by the geographical placement of the Kalmyk plateau, it’s climate characteristics as well as the main activity of its native inhabitants - active cattle breeding. The purpose of the article is to examine governmental aid, which was directed at overcoming th...e aftermath of harsh winter periods in the southern nomadic societies using the Kalmyk plateau of Astrahan province as an example. Base material for this article has been sourced from the documents from fund of the Russian historical archive, as well as the national fund of Kalmyk republic. Such documents included reports of ulus trustees, circular orders of the Head trustee of the Kalmyk people, orders of the governor as well as orders of the minister of agriculture and government property. The use of the historical reconstruction has helped determine and classify the methods that were used to aid the elimination of the consequences of a harsh winter as well as the preventative methods set in place to prevent future damage and ensure a growth of the nation’s welfare. At the end of the articles the authors note that while the methods used had positive impact, they did not lead to any big change. The reliance on nomadic, scattered pastoralism remained through the entire time period viewed.
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Sauna relations: The ethnoecological component of nomads ethnic and ethnosocial stratification

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The change in scientific paradigms and methodological approaches in the study of "nomad" societies increase the relevance of the study of modern processes of ethnic stratification among ethnic groups that have retained traditional economic specialization. The purpose of the study was to identify the... mechanism (complex of cause-and-effect relationships) of ethnic stratification among the ethnic groups of mountain ecosystems that retain their traditional economic specialization in the field of cattle breeding. Statistical data of the end of the 19th century, historiographic sources on the subject and author field materials were used. The methodological basis was systemic, process, selective approaches. The research algorithm was determined by a set of developed methods. On the basis of the analysis carried out, an assessment was made of autochthonous ethnic groups traditional system of subsistence as a multi-plane, hierarchically subordinate and balanced ethno-ecosystem, within the boundaries of which the processes of population reproduction were determined by the system reproducible natural resources redistribution. It was revealed that the traditional society social stratification had an undeniable impact on both the land use system and the sources of life support in all social strata. It is noted that in the society of "nomads" production-territorial ties dominated, while maintaining the historical memory of its class structure, as a guarantor of maintaining a relatively high welfare. The mobile livestock species concentration of limited number of families ownership (with a sauna system of relations) determined the idea of the priority right of this social stratum to regulate grazing in separate valley complexes
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Implementation of the soviet project in the Nogai steppes of the North Caucasus in the 1920s–1930s

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The publication presents the problem of reception of the soviet project among nomadic, semi-nomadic and sedentary Nogais who lived in the steppe zone of the North Caucasus in the 1920s–1930s. Despite the solid historiography on the history of relations between the socialist government and nomadic pe...oples, the specifics of the implementation of the bolshevik project in the Nogai environment did not become the subject of separate studies, which determines its novelty. The influence of natural and climatic factors on the transformation of the economic activity of the Nogais in the 1920s–1930s is of great importance in solving the research work. The main source base was materials extracted from the State archive of the Russian Federation (GARF) and the Russian state archive of socio-political history (RGASPI). The reception of the soviet project in the Nogai steppes vividly constructs the image of the era of socialist changes begun in the 1920s in the RSFSR. Devastation and famine were overcome simultaneously with the construction of the Soviet administrative, political and economic system. The phenomenon of sovietization of the Nogais of the North Caucasus was characterized by the administrative and territorial organization of the Nogais' management, the creation of an administrative and managerial apparatus aimed at the socialist transformation of the Nogais, the modernization of traditional forms of economy through the sedenterization of the population, the development of the agricultural sector in agriculture and animal husbandry. Nevertheless, these processes proceeded unevenly in the steppe. Nogais of the Achikulak district adapted to the new living conditions faster, while Nogais of the Karanogai district repeated the trends characteristic of the nomadic societies of the country in the first quarter of the XX century.
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On the Question of Natural and Climatic Factors and the Transition to Settlement of Nomadic Kalmyks (1920–1930s)

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The relevance of the stated problems is due to the tasks put forward at the present time of a detailed study of the individual components of the nomadic lifestyle in a modernized society and the resistance of Kalmyk nomads to specific natural and climatic factors. The purpose of the presented scient...ific article is to study the mechanism of the transition of Kalmyk pastoralists to a settled way of life and their interaction with natural-climatic and socio-economic processes. Comparative and comparative analysis of the facts and data of the presented sources, it seems to us, made it possible to avoid a subjective interpretation of the problem under study in our study and excluded tendentious views on a particular historical episode. We have worked out in detail the collections of the National Archives of the Republic of Kalmykia, rich in factual material on the entire range of issues of interest to us. In general, the available sources made it possible to give fairly accurate answers to the whole range of tasks. In conclusion, the author comes to the conclusion that in the 1920s. in the Kalmyk Autonomous Region, all the necessary conditions were created for the transition of nomadic pastoralists to a settled way of life. A serious crisis in the traditional livestock sector prompted the nomads to restructure their economic activities and actively integrate into the overall structure of the socio-economic parameters of the Soviet system. The features of these parameters oriented the nomads towards the use of natural sources that could ensure their continued existence. The Soviet state, in order to create a single society, created certain conditions for the unification of the disparate Kalmyk population, with the provision of homogeneous opportunities for economic activity, the development of education, culture, and healthcare. As a result, some economic growth began to be observed in KAO, mortality among nomads significantly decreased, the process of extinction of the entire population of the steppe region, associated with the famine of 1921–1922, was suspended, which led to an increase in the number of autochthonous Kalmyk population.
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The role of land reclamation in the socio-economic development of the nomadic peoples of the South of Russia (middle 1920s–1930s).

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The study examines the historical experience of the development of melioration in the territories inhabited by nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples – Kalmyks, Astrakhan Kazakhs, Nogais, Stavropol Turkmens during the period of collectivization of the country's agriculture. The purpose of the article is t...o study the role of land reclamation in the socio-economic development of the nomads of the South of Russia. The article is written on the basis of archival materials extracted from the Russian State Archive of Economics, the National archive of the Republic of Kalmykia, the State Archive of the Saratov Region, the State Archive of the Recent History of the Stavropol Territory. The archival documents involved in the process of research made it possible to conclude that the introduction of land reclamation technologies into the economic life of the nomadic peoples was of a progressive nature, radically changing the centuries-old way of life of the nomads. But it was not without mistakes and excesses. Thus, party and state bodies in nomadic regions, due to the lack of relevant knowledge and experience, often could not ensure the organization of work in the field of land reclamation at the proper level, and meet the strict deadlines for their implementation. But, despite the difficulties, the implementation of reclamation work made it possible to introduce into agricultural circulation significant areas of previously empty lands, increase the productivity of agricultural crops, instill a culture of agriculture in yesterday's nomads, get a reliable source of fodder for livestock, Permanent settlements began to be built on irrigated lands, contributing to the settlement nomadic population and introducing it to new forms of management
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The impact of natural and climatic factors on demographic processes (Using the Republic of Kalmykia as a case study)

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To ensure a country’s national security, preserving its population is a must. Demographic processes which are affected by many factors (including external factors), affect all areas of socio-economic development of a country as a whole as well as every region of said country on their own. Due to thi...s the goal of our work is to determine the impact of natural-climatic factors on the demographic situation of a region which has some of the most extreme living conditions in Russian Federation. To assess the dynamics of demographic indicators statistical data along with sociological surveys were used. It has been established that the adverse impact of natural and climatic factors, the crisis of family and marriage relations, a decrease in the birth rate, an increase in mortality and migration leads to a population losses. Therefore the scale of touched on problems as well as their synergetic effect justifies the need to take well-timed managerial decisions to minimize the impact of risks on demographic processes. At the moment it is necessary to develop a mechanism for the implementation of measures aimed at ensuring the reproductive and matrimonial plans, health protection, strengthening the rural population in the territory and improving the quality of life of the population as a whole. The authors connect the perspectives of future research with a more detailed study of factors that affect the marital, birth rate, mortality rate and migration processes and life expectancy
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The Nomadic subject: perception and reinventing of G. Deleuze and F. Guattri`s nomadology in Posthumanism

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The article considers the transformation of Deleuze and Guattari's concept of "nomadic subjectivity" in the context of modern posthumanism. Unlike "rhizome," "nomadic subject" has no strict definition — the French philosophers appeal to historical figures (Vauban, Desargues, Kierkegaard, and others)... or images, leaving a space open to interpretation. One of the most illustrative examples is the analogy between "nomadic thought" and the game of Go — there is no hierarchy among figures, as there is in chess; every one of them can play a key role. Today, such philosophers as D. E. Rose, F. Ferrando, and R. Braidotti are using Deleuze and Guattari's ideas in posthuman discourse. We assume R. Braidotti's take to be the most representative example of perception and evaluation of "nomadic thought". She defines her research perspective from which the notion of "nomadic subject" is being reconsidered as vitalistic neo-materialism. To make a critical analysis of the transformation of Deleuze and Guattari's concept possible, we have located and articulated the following most crucial characteristics of the nomadic subject: spontaneity, absence of hierarchy, locality. These features, used as anchor points, have allowed us to distinguish a fundamental differentiation between R. Braidotti's position and that of her academic teachers. The posthuman topics taken into consideration in the article include the crisis of Anthropos, which follows the crisis of humanism, de-psychologization of the affect as a condition of the emergence of the posthuman, and the instauration of a new type of subjectivity in the frame of zoo-, bio-, techno-, and geosphere convergence. We come to the conclusion that R. Braidotti's approach voluntarily and methodologically incorrectly expands the borders of the notion "nomadic subject".
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Cluster "Atmospheric Precipitation" in the Vocabulary of Kalmyk Folk Songs

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The article deals with the issues of systematic nature of the folklore lexicon, in particular, the idea of clusters and cluster analysis is used to identify the national and cultural identity of the vocabulary of Kalmyk songs recorded by G. Balint, E. Dzhabdykov, A. M. Listopadov, G. J. Ramstedt, N.... Ochirov, A. V. Burdukov, B. Dzhimbiev, N. K. Volkovich, N. Ts. Erendzhenova, C.-D. Nominkhanov, B. M. Sandzhieva, B. B. Okonov, L. Tsebekova. The purpose of this article is to identify lexemes by meaning related to the cluster "Atmospheric precipitation". The cluster under consideration consists of two subclusters “names of precipitation formed on the surface of the earth and on objects” (chig, namrһ, shүүdr 'dew', tsang 'hoarfrost, frost', mөsn 'ice, ice floe') and 'names of precipitation falling on the earth's surface. surface” (khur 'rain', tsasn 'snow', möndr 'hail'). The theoretical and methodological basis of the article was the main provisions of modern Russian linguistic folklore, including the study of the vocabulary of Russian folk songs as a system, presented in the works of A. T. Khrolenko, A. M. Bobunova, S. V. Supryagi, M. A. Bobunova. The cluster principle differs from the usual thematic classification of lexemes in that it includes words belonging to different parts of speech, which makes it possible to more fully represent one or another fragment of the “picture of the world”. In the vocabulary of Kalmyk songs, the most frequent lexemes were "names of precipitation falling on the earth's surface": khur 'rain' (25), mөsn 'ice' (9), tsasn 'snow' (8), the lexemes mөndr ' hail' (4) and chig 'dew' (5).
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About the scientific project "Transformation of nomadic societies of the South of Russia in the context of natural and factors (XIX – mid XX centuries)"

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The role of the natural and climatic factor in the history and culture of the nomadic societies of Central Asia: the phenomenon of weather (book review: Drobyshev Yu. I. Climate and khans: the role of the climatic factor in the political history of Centra

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The review examines the main provisions of the monographic work of Y. Drobyshev showed its relevance and significance for the domestic and foreign nomadic studies. Conducted by the author of the reviewed monograph the research has shown all steadiness and debatability of the stated problem. Multidim...ensionality and interdisciplinary research required the author of the book to appeal to historiographical, archeological, ethnographic, written and oral (folklore) sources. The author's original interpretation of empirical material related to the phenomenon of climate and its exclusion on the life of nomads of Central Asia in the past is noted. It is shown that the book contains valuable historiographical data requiring climatic background of nomadic civilization, revealing the detection of changes in the objects of nature by nomads. The subjects of interest are the dramatic events in the history of nomads of the supposed region, the weather magic connected with the interests of nomads — hunting, cattle breeding and military campaigns. The author of the book when considering alternative views on an important or another issue, argued pre-trial defeat of the point of view. The review presents both the undoubted merits of the reviewed work and several observations and wishes that can be taken into account by its author when preparing new works on this very inter-esting topic.
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Musa Muslievich Ibragimov — 75 years old

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